Testing if Consciousness Collapses the Wave Function
Putting the Consciousness Causes Collapse (CCC) interpretation of quantum mechanics to an empirical test requires methods that are not limited to those of experimental physics. In cognitive psychology, the term priming refers to an effect where exposure to one stimulus influences a person's response to another stimulus. For example, a positive word such as “happy” is recognized and responded to faster after the word “joy” as compared to a negative word such as “sadness” or “death”. The word “up” is responded to faster following a prime such as “high” or “top” as opposed to “bottom” or “low”. The primes work by getting you to lean mentally in a particular direction, so when you have to respond to something that is already in that direction you can do it faster, while it takes you longer than normal to respond to something in the opposite direction. Psychologists have been exploiting these reliable reaction time effects for decades as a multipurpose research tool. In recent years, these methods have even been used to prime subjects subliminally (Dehaene et al, 1998; Greenwald et al, 2003; Kouider & Dehaene, 2009). In such research, subjects are flashed a prime (such as a word or a symbol) on a computer screen for a length of time that is just underneath the duration that can be consciously experienced (about 50 milliseconds). Despite subjects reporting to not be aware of seeing the prime, they demonstrated shorter reaction times responding to stimulus that is congruent with the prime than to incongruent stimulus. Their brains processed the meaning of the prime and began to react to it even though they were not aware of it. The prime was processed unconsciously.
This ability for humans to process information unconsciously makes it possible to measure the effects of something that is itself shielded from conscious observation. By deriving the direction of the primes from quantum events we can leverage subliminal priming methodology to put the CCC interpretation of quantum mechanics to an experimental test.
This ability for humans to process information unconsciously makes it possible to measure the effects of something that is itself shielded from conscious observation. By deriving the direction of the primes from quantum events we can leverage subliminal priming methodology to put the CCC interpretation of quantum mechanics to an experimental test.
Overview of Original Study
In this first study (Lucido, 2023) primes were derived from quantum events that were shielded from conscious observation. A Geiger counter was used to measure the radioactive decay from a small sample of uranium ore during a series of four second intervals of time. The frequency of clicks for each interval was transformed through the computer software and determined whether an odd or even number prime would be flashed on the screen for 50 milliseconds (too short a duration to be consciously experienced). The primes were followed by a stimulus number that was presented on the screen that subjects could experience and were asked to respond to by stating out loud whether that number was odd or even. The subject's reaction time, how long it took them to say "odd" or "even" was recorded. Details of the response time task
A prime in a state of superposition should not produce its full effect on response time as it will be simultaneously both congruent and incongruent with the stimulus. Therefore, it is hypothesized that if the CCC interpretation of quantum mechanics is correct the stimulus primes will not have the expected effect on reaction time (reducing it when congruent and increasing it when incongruent), as it would in a control condition in which the primes were directly observed by the experimenter beforehand.
A prime in a state of superposition should not produce its full effect on response time as it will be simultaneously both congruent and incongruent with the stimulus. Therefore, it is hypothesized that if the CCC interpretation of quantum mechanics is correct the stimulus primes will not have the expected effect on reaction time (reducing it when congruent and increasing it when incongruent), as it would in a control condition in which the primes were directly observed by the experimenter beforehand.
If it were the case that the physical measuring device alone collapsed the wave function, we would expect the radioactive decay to have collapsed into a series of definite states upon its initial interaction with the Geiger counter, and whether the experimenter later viewed the values on a computer screen would not have altered the effect the primes had on reaction time.
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Results of Original Study
The results obtained support the CCC interpretation of quantum mechanics. The primes were found to affect participant response times only if they were subject to prior conscious observation. Within the observed condition, significantly shorter reaction times were obtained on items paired with congruent primes than those paired with incongruent primes (t = -3.19, p <.001). However, within the unobserved condition (where conscious had been withheld) the response times between items with congruent and incongruent primes were statistically equivalent (t =-0.71, p = 0.239). The absolute difference in the value of the t scores between the conditions was 2.48. This difference is significant. The probability of obtaining this result by chance is .007. Detailed Results of Original Study
Replication of Results
A replication of results (Lucido, 2024) was completed identical to the original study (Lucido, 2023) with the exception of two changes that were made to the procedures. First, the response modality was changed from a verbal response to a keystroke response, where the participants were asked to press either the “E” or the “O” keys to indicate even or odd instead of speaking their answers into the laptop microphone. Besides being logistically easier to score, the keystroke response modality appeared to reduce the variance in response times, which increased the statistical power of the analysis. The only other change to the experimental procedure was that the participants were switched between the observed and the unobserved conditions three times during each trial, rather than only once as in the original study. This was done to better control for any potential order effects. The modified response time tasks code containing these two changes is available here.
The results obtained were similar to that of the original study (Lucido, 2023). Within the observed condition, items preceded by congruent primes were responded to 47 ms faster than items preceded by incongruent primes. However, within the unobserved condition, items preceded by congruent primes were responded to only 17 ms faster than items preceded by incongruent primes. The resulting average response time difference of 30 ms is nearly identical to the response time difference of 28 ms obtained in the original study. Although both conditions met the .05 cut off for statistical significance, the t value obtained in the observed condition was nearly three times as large as the value obtained in the unobserved condition. The absolute difference in the t values between the two conditions was 3.65. This result is statistically significant. It is larger than what was obtained in the first study. The probability of obtaining this a t value difference of 3.65 by chance is .00014. The results of this second data collection continue to support the consciousness causes collapse interpretation of quantum mechanics. Replication of results in detail.
The results obtained were similar to that of the original study (Lucido, 2023). Within the observed condition, items preceded by congruent primes were responded to 47 ms faster than items preceded by incongruent primes. However, within the unobserved condition, items preceded by congruent primes were responded to only 17 ms faster than items preceded by incongruent primes. The resulting average response time difference of 30 ms is nearly identical to the response time difference of 28 ms obtained in the original study. Although both conditions met the .05 cut off for statistical significance, the t value obtained in the observed condition was nearly three times as large as the value obtained in the unobserved condition. The absolute difference in the t values between the two conditions was 3.65. This result is statistically significant. It is larger than what was obtained in the first study. The probability of obtaining this a t value difference of 3.65 by chance is .00014. The results of this second data collection continue to support the consciousness causes collapse interpretation of quantum mechanics. Replication of results in detail.
Additional Replications
Two additional experiments (Lucido, 2025) were completed in January of 2025. Their primary purpose was to again test the CCC by comparing the effectiveness of quantum derived primes that were observed by the experimenter compared to those that were denied that observation. Their secondary objective was to compare differences in response modalities (keystrokes versus verbal) as well as the duration that the primes were exposed to the participants (33 ms versus 50 ms). Their tertiary purpose was to explore the effects of animal observation. To accomplish this a third condition was added where primes were withheld from human observation but were instead observed by a cat (who was in a position to hear the Geiger counter clicks as the primes were being derived). This was done to examine whether or not a cat could collapse the wave function.
Experiment #3
Experiment #3 was run with the same code as in the original study (Lucido, 2023) with the exception that participants were switched between the conditions more often than they were in the original study, and the addition of the third cat observed condition.
The results obtained were consistent with previous research (Lucido, 2023, 2024). Within the human observed conditions, items preceded by congruent primes were responded to 44 ms faster than items preceded by incongruent primes. However, within the conditions that were denied previous human observation, items preceded by congruent primes were responded to only 21 ms faster than items preceded by incongruent primes. The resulting average response time difference of 23 ms is similar to the response time difference obtained in the original study (28 ms) and in the first replication (30 ms). Although both conditions met the .05 cut off for statistical significance, the t value obtained in the human observed condition was more than twice as large as the value obtained in the conditions not observed by humans. The absolute difference in the t values between the two conditions was 2.221. The probability of obtaining this t value difference by chance was .013. The results of experiment #3 continue to support the consciousness causes collapse interpretation of quantum mechanics.
It was hypothesized that observation by the cat would collapse the wave function determining the primes and result in similar performance to the human observed primes. However, this was not the case. The primes previously observed by the cat did not have any greater effect than those left totally unobserved. Instead, they showed significantly less effectiveness than both the primes observed by humans and primes that were completely unobserved. Within the cat observed condition response times to congruent and incongruent primes were statistically equivalent (t = 1.0712, p =.142). Experiment #3 results in detail
Experiment #4
Experiment #4 was run with the same code as in the first replication study (Lucido, 2024) with three exceptions. The first being that participants were switched more often between the conditions than they were in the earlier study. The second difference was the primes were exposed for a shorter duration of time than they were in all previous research, 33 ms, as opposed to 51 ms. Lastly, as in Experiment #3, there was an addition of a third condition consisting of primes that had been previously observed by a cat instead of a human.
The results obtained were consistent with previous research (Lucido, 2023, 2024). Within the human observed condition, items preceded by congruent primes were responded to 48 ms faster than items preceded by incongruent primes. However, within the conditions that were denied previous human observation, items preceded by congruent primes were responded to only 17 ms faster than items preceded by incongruent primes. The resulting average response time difference of 31 ms is nearly identical to the response time differences of 28 and 30 ms obtained in the original study and the first replication. Although both conditions met the .05 cut off for statistical significance, the t value obtained in the human observed condition was more than twice as large as the value obtained in the human unobserved condition. The absolute difference in the t values between the two conditions was 3.42. The probability of obtaining this t value difference of 3.42 by chance is .00033. The results of experiment #4 continue to support the consciousness causes collapse interpretation of quantum mechanics.
The results obtained in the cat condition we nearly exactly the same as in Experiment #3. While it was hypothesized that the observation by the cat would collapse the wave function and result in similar performance to that of human observed primes, this was not the case. The primes previously observed by the cat did not perform better than those left totally unobserved, although they did not perform significantly worse as they did in experiment #3. Within the cat observed condition response times to congruent and incongruent primes were statistically equivalent (t = 1.410, p =.08). Experiment #4 results in detail
Experiments #3 and #4 General Conclusions
The results of both experiments are consistent with the results of the first two studies (Lucido, 2023, 2024) and provide further support for the consciousness causes collapse interpretation of quantum mechanics. All four data collections showed significantly greater response time effects using primes that were subjected to prior human observation as compared to primes that were denied that observation.
Experiment #3
Experiment #3 was run with the same code as in the original study (Lucido, 2023) with the exception that participants were switched between the conditions more often than they were in the original study, and the addition of the third cat observed condition.
The results obtained were consistent with previous research (Lucido, 2023, 2024). Within the human observed conditions, items preceded by congruent primes were responded to 44 ms faster than items preceded by incongruent primes. However, within the conditions that were denied previous human observation, items preceded by congruent primes were responded to only 21 ms faster than items preceded by incongruent primes. The resulting average response time difference of 23 ms is similar to the response time difference obtained in the original study (28 ms) and in the first replication (30 ms). Although both conditions met the .05 cut off for statistical significance, the t value obtained in the human observed condition was more than twice as large as the value obtained in the conditions not observed by humans. The absolute difference in the t values between the two conditions was 2.221. The probability of obtaining this t value difference by chance was .013. The results of experiment #3 continue to support the consciousness causes collapse interpretation of quantum mechanics.
It was hypothesized that observation by the cat would collapse the wave function determining the primes and result in similar performance to the human observed primes. However, this was not the case. The primes previously observed by the cat did not have any greater effect than those left totally unobserved. Instead, they showed significantly less effectiveness than both the primes observed by humans and primes that were completely unobserved. Within the cat observed condition response times to congruent and incongruent primes were statistically equivalent (t = 1.0712, p =.142). Experiment #3 results in detail
Experiment #4
Experiment #4 was run with the same code as in the first replication study (Lucido, 2024) with three exceptions. The first being that participants were switched more often between the conditions than they were in the earlier study. The second difference was the primes were exposed for a shorter duration of time than they were in all previous research, 33 ms, as opposed to 51 ms. Lastly, as in Experiment #3, there was an addition of a third condition consisting of primes that had been previously observed by a cat instead of a human.
The results obtained were consistent with previous research (Lucido, 2023, 2024). Within the human observed condition, items preceded by congruent primes were responded to 48 ms faster than items preceded by incongruent primes. However, within the conditions that were denied previous human observation, items preceded by congruent primes were responded to only 17 ms faster than items preceded by incongruent primes. The resulting average response time difference of 31 ms is nearly identical to the response time differences of 28 and 30 ms obtained in the original study and the first replication. Although both conditions met the .05 cut off for statistical significance, the t value obtained in the human observed condition was more than twice as large as the value obtained in the human unobserved condition. The absolute difference in the t values between the two conditions was 3.42. The probability of obtaining this t value difference of 3.42 by chance is .00033. The results of experiment #4 continue to support the consciousness causes collapse interpretation of quantum mechanics.
The results obtained in the cat condition we nearly exactly the same as in Experiment #3. While it was hypothesized that the observation by the cat would collapse the wave function and result in similar performance to that of human observed primes, this was not the case. The primes previously observed by the cat did not perform better than those left totally unobserved, although they did not perform significantly worse as they did in experiment #3. Within the cat observed condition response times to congruent and incongruent primes were statistically equivalent (t = 1.410, p =.08). Experiment #4 results in detail
Experiments #3 and #4 General Conclusions
The results of both experiments are consistent with the results of the first two studies (Lucido, 2023, 2024) and provide further support for the consciousness causes collapse interpretation of quantum mechanics. All four data collections showed significantly greater response time effects using primes that were subjected to prior human observation as compared to primes that were denied that observation.
Second, it appears that the verbal response modality does not have any advantage over the keystroke response modality. Of the four experiments conducted so far, the two that used the keystroke response modality generated higher t score differences between observed and unobserved primes than the two that required the participants to respond verbally. For this reason, along with its ease of use, keystroke responses may be preferred in follow up research designs. Thirdly, limiting the duration of the primes to 33 milliseconds did not result in any significant difference compared to the other data collections. Follow up research designs may prefer to utilize the 50-millisecond prime duration.
Finally, in both experiments the primes previously observed by the cat did not have any greater effect than those left totally unobserved. There is no reason for this result that can be offered at present as to why primes observed by the cat would underperform primes that remained completely unobserved as they did in experiment #3. However, at this point it is clear that primes observed by the cat demonstrated markedly lower effectiveness compared to those subjected to human observation. This suggests, barring any unknown errors in the experimental design, that human observation collapses the wavefunction while cat observation does not.
It is also possible, although not particularly likely, that relying on the proximity of the cat to the sound of the Geiger counter may have been an insufficient method of producing cat observed primes. If this were the case, then what was set up to be the “cat observed” condition would then have defaulted to an additional unobserved condition. In either scenario the primary conclusion that human observed primes are more effective than primes that were denied that observation would remain unchanged.
Finally, in both experiments the primes previously observed by the cat did not have any greater effect than those left totally unobserved. There is no reason for this result that can be offered at present as to why primes observed by the cat would underperform primes that remained completely unobserved as they did in experiment #3. However, at this point it is clear that primes observed by the cat demonstrated markedly lower effectiveness compared to those subjected to human observation. This suggests, barring any unknown errors in the experimental design, that human observation collapses the wavefunction while cat observation does not.
It is also possible, although not particularly likely, that relying on the proximity of the cat to the sound of the Geiger counter may have been an insufficient method of producing cat observed primes. If this were the case, then what was set up to be the “cat observed” condition would then have defaulted to an additional unobserved condition. In either scenario the primary conclusion that human observed primes are more effective than primes that were denied that observation would remain unchanged.
Meta Analysis of the Four Experiments
A weighted analysis was conducted from the data obtained on all four of the experiments. The weighted response time differences obtained for each of the three conditions are presented in the graph above. Please see the links below for the detailed results.
Link to the complete analysis.
Link to the Excel file.
The total incongruent verse congruent effect in the Human Observed Condition was compared to the total effect within the Unobserved Condition. The effect in the Human Observed Condition (44.51 ms) was more than twice as large as it was in the Unobserved Condition (20.57 ms). A comparison of the t score obtained in the Human Observed Condition (t = 9.3388) to that of the Unobserved Condition (t = 4.5993) resulted in an absolute t score difference of 4.7395 between the two conditions. This t score difference is itself statistically significant and results in a p value of 1 x 10-6. This means that the likelihood of obtaining this difference between the two conditions by chance is approximately one in one million.
Link to the complete analysis.
Link to the Excel file.
The total incongruent verse congruent effect in the Human Observed Condition was compared to the total effect within the Unobserved Condition. The effect in the Human Observed Condition (44.51 ms) was more than twice as large as it was in the Unobserved Condition (20.57 ms). A comparison of the t score obtained in the Human Observed Condition (t = 9.3388) to that of the Unobserved Condition (t = 4.5993) resulted in an absolute t score difference of 4.7395 between the two conditions. This t score difference is itself statistically significant and results in a p value of 1 x 10-6. This means that the likelihood of obtaining this difference between the two conditions by chance is approximately one in one million.
The incongruent verse congruent effect in the Human Observed Condition was compared to the effect within the Cat Observed Condition. The effect in the Human Observed Condition (46.06 ms) was more than four times as large as it was within the Cat Observed Condition (10.83 ms). A comparison of the t score obtained in the Human Observed Condition (t = 7.0786) to that of the Unobserved Condition (t = 1.7105) resulted in an absolute t score difference of 5.3686 between the two conditions. This t score difference is itself statistically significant and results in a p value of 4.9 x 10-8. This means that the likelihood of obtaining this difference between the two conditions by chance is less than one in ten million. **For this comparison only data from the Human Observed condition in experiments 3 and 4 were used, as those were the only two that contained a Cat Observed Condition. If the total Human Observed results were used as a comparison were use the degrees of freedom would have been much higher, which would have prohibited a far comparison of the t scores.**
Independent Replication
In addition to the four experiments presented here, an independent CCC data collection was completed by Robert Rennie where significant priming effects were obtained in the observed condition but were absent in the unobserved condition. These findings are consistent with the results of the original study and provide further evidence for the consciousness causes collapse interpretation.
Further Information
The Raw Data from all four experiments are available here: Raw Data
The Experimental Procedures and Program Codes for replication are available here: Experimental Procedures
The Experimental Procedures and Program Codes for replication are available here: Experimental Procedures
Why it Matters
The implications of science’s ability to demonstrate that conscious observation collapses the wave function are significant. Such demonstration would have broad consequences for wildly held scientific beliefs.
Physical Reality is Not Independent of Consciousness
The results of these tests of the CCC do not function so much as to explain consciousness as to explain the nature of physical reality and its limits. If consciousness is a necessary constituent of quantum mechanics, then consciousness is a necessary constituent of physical reality as we currently observe it. If materialism is correct, then conscious observation needs to have nothing at all to do with quantum mechanics. To the extent that we can demonstrate that is does, the belief in a mind independent physical reality becomes untenable.
There is Only One Universe
The Many Worlds Interpretation of quantum mechanics is predicated on the idea that the Schrödinger equation gives a complete picture of what exists. In this interpretation the wavefunction never collapses. These tests of the CCC demonstrate that this is not so. If consciousness causes the collapse of the wavefunction then collapse is a real part of quantum mechanics and theories that do not allow for collapse cannot be correct.
Physical Reality is Not Independent of Consciousness
The results of these tests of the CCC do not function so much as to explain consciousness as to explain the nature of physical reality and its limits. If consciousness is a necessary constituent of quantum mechanics, then consciousness is a necessary constituent of physical reality as we currently observe it. If materialism is correct, then conscious observation needs to have nothing at all to do with quantum mechanics. To the extent that we can demonstrate that is does, the belief in a mind independent physical reality becomes untenable.
There is Only One Universe
The Many Worlds Interpretation of quantum mechanics is predicated on the idea that the Schrödinger equation gives a complete picture of what exists. In this interpretation the wavefunction never collapses. These tests of the CCC demonstrate that this is not so. If consciousness causes the collapse of the wavefunction then collapse is a real part of quantum mechanics and theories that do not allow for collapse cannot be correct.
Lucido, R. J. (2023). Testing the Consciousness Causes Collapse Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics Using Subliminal Primes Derived from Random Fluctuations in Radioactive Decay. Journal of Consciousness Exploration & Research, 14, 3, 185-194.
Lucido, R. J. (2024). Replication of Results from a Test of the Consciousness Causes Collapse Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics Using Subliminal Priming Methodology. Journal of Consciousness Exploration & Research, 15, 3, 229-239.
Lucido, R. J. (2025). Do Cats Collapse the Wave Function? Confronting the Measurement Problem with Subliminal Priming. Journal of NeuroPhilosophy, 4(1).
Richard James Lucido, Ph.D.
[email protected]
ResearchGate Profile
Academia.edu Profile
Lucido, R. J. (2024). Replication of Results from a Test of the Consciousness Causes Collapse Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics Using Subliminal Priming Methodology. Journal of Consciousness Exploration & Research, 15, 3, 229-239.
Lucido, R. J. (2025). Do Cats Collapse the Wave Function? Confronting the Measurement Problem with Subliminal Priming. Journal of NeuroPhilosophy, 4(1).
Richard James Lucido, Ph.D.
[email protected]
ResearchGate Profile
Academia.edu Profile